Educational Management

Concept of Educational Management

Educational management, the name implies, operates in the educational organizations. There is no defining definition of educational management because its development has drawn heavily on several disciplines like economics, political science and sociology. Most of the definitions of educational management which have been offered by write are partial because they reflect the particular sense of their authors.

A. Meaning of Educational Management

Management is the process of planning, organising, directing, controlling and evaluating to accomplish predetermined objectives of an institution through coordinated use of human and material resources. 

Management is the Art/Science of:- 

• Getting work done. 
• With the help of other people 
• Within the given budget 
• Within the given deadlines.

Management as an academic discipline refers to, substantive body of knowledge of concepts, theories, laws and applications in practice.

Henry Fayol:- To manage is to ― "forecast and plan, to organise, to command, to coordinate and to control."

Donald J Clough:- "Management is the heart and science of decision making and leadership."

Education is the provision of a series of learning experiences to students in order to impart knowledge, values, attitudes and skills with the ultimate aim of making them productive members of society. 

Educational Management is, "The process of planning, organizing, directing and controlling the activities of an institution by utilizing human and material resources so as to effectively and efficiently accomplish functions of teaching, extension work and research."

B. Need of educational management: 

Policy at the national level focuses on social, economic and cultural development. The best means to achieve the development in these spheres is through human resource development and Education. There have been tremendous advance in the field of technology—this is made available to society only through education.

 The field of education is expected to provide society with human resources which have specialized knowledge, attitudes, work ethics, social, moral & political values and skills so as to sustain and enhance the expected development of the nation.

Thus,

1. Education has to make its curriculum more relevant to life and needs of a changing society in an effective and efficient manner.
2. Education therefore has to be dynamic, so that it can contribute towards accomplishment of national development goals.
3. Education must also enable students to bring about desirable social change and at the same time preserve desirable and positive aspects of existing culture.

In order to fulfill the above stated role of education, keeping in mind ―NATIONAL DEVELOPMENTAL GOALS‖ effectively and efficiently, there is a need to manage education professionally and move beyond the traditional role of academics and values only. 

Thus the knowledge of:

1. Educational management theories, principles, concepts, techniques, skills and strategies, when applied to education will bring about effective and efficient functioning of educational institutions.
2. Scientific and systematic management of educational institutions is necessary to bring about qualitative changes in the educational system.
3. Educational management is required to manage and create institutions of excellence like IIT, IIM etc , so that the vast majority of students can benefit from such specialized training.
4. Knowledge of educational management is also required so that we can use our scarce and dwindling resources for education in the most effective and efficient manner.
5. Knowledge of educational management is also necessary to train the present teachers to learn and run educational institutions professionally, as basic courses like B.Ed / M.Ed do not prepare teachers to become managers.

C. Scope Of Educational Management

1. Scope is very wide and includes history and theories of management science, roles and responsibilities of educational manager as well as managerial skills.
2. Includes a study of educational planning at macro level, its goals principles, approaches and procedures and the micro level institutional planning and educational administration.
3. Helps in decision making and solving problems, Communication and managing information and Building effective teams.
4. Providing human equipment ie supervisor, teachers, non teaching staff, officeworkers and providing material equipment such as building, furniture, labs, library, museum etc.
5. Co-curricular planning, preparing timetable.
6. Motivating staff and students.
7. Conducting staff meetings and Managing conflicts and stress.
8. Developing healthy and conducive school climate.
9. Organization of counselling and guidance.
10. Organization of health and physical education, Organization of exhibitions and fairs.
11. Maintenance of school records, Evaluating students achievements.
12. Financing and budgeting.
13. Community service.

D. Importance Of Educational Management

The study of educational management is important as,

1. It includes the study of various the various theories of management science which define and describe the roles and responsibilities of the educational manager and develop managerial skills.
2. It includes the study of educational planning at macro levels, its goals, principles, approaches and procedures. At a micro level it helps in understanding and facilitates: Institutional planning and Educational administration.
3. Helps in decision making and problem –solving, communication and managing information and building effective teams.
4. Helps in planning of co-curricular activities, academics and preparation of time-table.
5. Helps in the maintenance of school records, evaluating students’ achievements.
6. Financing and budgeting of the institution.

E. Objectives Of Educational Management

1. To develop an understanding of the concept of educational management.
2. To develop an understanding of the various functions of an educational institution.
3. To develop an understanding of the roles and functions of an educational manager.
4. To develop an understanding of the essential components of democratic classroom management.
5. To develop an awareness of the various structure/levels of educational management.
6. To develop an awareness of the characteristics of quality institutions.
7. To sensitise the students towards effective management of human and material resources.
8. To develop an appreciation of the role of various administrative authorities in maintaining quality of educational institutions.

Objectives Of Educational Managements At The School/Institutional Level:

1. Achievement of the institutions’ objectives.
2. To improve the planning, organizing and implementation of the institutions activities and processes.
3. To create maintain and enhance a good public image of the institution.
4. To ensure appropriate utilization of human resources.( teachers, non-teaching and students)
5. To enhance the efficiency and effectives of infrastructural facilities.
6. To enhance job satisfaction.
7. To create and maintain a congenial school atmosphere.
8. To manage interpersonal conflicts, manage stress and use time effectively.
9. To improve interpersonal communication.

On the whole, we can say that educational management is extremely important as it provides for,

• Setting directions, aims and objectives.
• Planning progress that is to be made.
• Organising available resources, so that goals can be economically achieved in a planned way.
• Controlling the processes which take place in an organization.
• Setting and improving organizational standards.

F. Principles of Management

Managers in the early 1900s had very few external resources to draw upon to guide and develop their management practice. But thanks to early theorists like Henri Fayol (1841-1925), managers began to get the tools they needed to lead and manage more effectively. Fayol, and others like him, are responsible for building the foundations of modern management theory.

Henri Fayol was born in Istanbul in 1841. When he was 19, he began working as an engineer at a large mining company in France. He eventually became the director, at a time when the mining company employed more than 1,000 people.

Through the years, Fayol began to develop what he considered to be the 14 most important principles of management. Essentially, these explained how managers should organize and interact with staff.

In 1916, two years before he stepped down as director, he published his "14 Principles of Management" in the book "Administration Industrielle et Générale" (General and Industrial Management). Fayol also created a list of the six primary functions of management, which go hand in hand with the Principles.

Fayol's "14 Principles" was one of the earliest theories of management to be created, and remains one of the most comprehensive. He's considered to be among the most influential contributors to the modern concept of management, even though people don't refer to "The 14 Principles" often today.

Fayol's 14 Principles of Management

Fayol's principles are listed below:

1. Division of Work – When employees are specialized, output can increase because they become increasingly skilled and efficient.
2. Authority – Managers must have the authority to give orders, but they must also keep in mind that with authority comes responsibility.
3. Discipline – Discipline must be upheld in organizations, but methods for doing so can vary.
4. Unity of Command – Employees should have only one direct supervisor.
5. Unity of Direction – Teams with the same objective should be working under the direction of one manager, using one plan. This will ensure that action is properly coordinated.
6. Subordination of Individual Interests to the General Interest – The interests of one employee should not be allowed to become more important than those of the group. This includes managers.
7. Remuneration – Employee satisfaction depends on fair remuneration for everyone. This includes financial and non-financial compensation.
8. Centralization – This principle refers to how close employees are to the decision-making process. It is important to aim for an appropriate balance.
9. Scalar Chain – Employees should be aware of where they stand in the organization's hierarchy, or chain of command.
10. Order – The workplace facilities must be clean, tidy and safe for employees. Everything should have its place.
11. Equity – Managers should be fair to staff at all times, both maintaining discipline as necessary and acting with kindness where appropriate.
12. Stability of Tenure of Personnel – Managers should strive to minimize employee turnover. Personnel planning should be a priority.
13. Initiative – Employees should be given the necessary level of freedom to create and carry out plans.
14. Esprit de Corps – Organizations should strive to promote team spirit and unity.

14 principles of management by Henri Fayol

While presenting the principles of management, Fayol has kept two things in mind. Firstly, the list of the principles of management should not be long but should be suggestive and only those principles should be explained which become applicable in most of the situations.

Secondly, the principles of management should be flexible and not rigid so that changes can be made in them in case of need. The fourteen principles given by Fayol are as under:

(1) Division of Work:

This principle of Fayol tells us that as far as possible the whole work should be divided into different parts and each individual should be assigned only one part of the work according to his ability and taste rather than giving the whole work to one person.

When a particular individual performs the same job repeatedly, he will become an expert in doing that particular part of the whole job. Consequently, the benefits of specialisation will become available.

For example, a furniture manufacturer gets an order for manufacturing 100 lecture stands. He has five workers who will do the job. There are two ways to complete this order. First, every worker should be asked to complete 20 lecture stands.

The second method can be distributing different parts of the lecture stand-legs, top board, centre support, assembling and polishing-to all the five workers in a manner that only one worker does the same job for all the 100 lecture stands. Here, Fayol’s indication is to the second way to do this job and not the former one.

The principle of division of labour applies not only to the workers but also equally to the managers. For example, if a manager is tuned to work on the same kind of activities for a long period of time, he will certainly be an expert in his particular job. Consequently, more and beneficial decisions can be taken in a comparatively less time by him.

Positive Effect advantages of specialisation are obtained, such as increase in the quality of work, increase in the speed of production, decrease in the wastage of resources.

Violating Effect the above-mentioned positive effects of specialisation will not be available.

(2) Authority and Responsibility:

According to this principle, authority and responsibility should go hand in hand. It means that when a particular individual is given a particular work and he is made responsible for the results, this can be possible only when he is given sufficient authority to discharge his responsibility.

It is not proper to make a person responsible for any work in the absence of authority. In the words of Fayol, “The result of authority is responsibility. It is the natural result of authority and essentially another aspect of authority and whenever authority is used, responsibility are automatically born.”

For example, the CEO of a company has doubled the sales target of the sales manager for the coming year. To achieve this target, authority for appointing necessary sales representatives, advertising according to the need, etc. shall have to be allowed. In case these things are not allowed the sales manager cannot be held responsible for not

(3) Discipline:

Discipline is essential for any successful work performance. Fayol considers discipline to mean obedience, respect for authority, and observance of established rules.

Discipline can be established by providing good supervision at all levels, clearly explaining the rules, and implementing a system of reward and punishment. A manager can present a good example to his subordinates by disciplining himself.

For example, if the employees break their promise of working up to their full capacity, it will amount to the violation of obedience. Similarly a sales manager has the authority to do business on credit.

But in case he allows this facility not to the general customers but only to his relatives and friends, then it will amount to ignoring his respect to his authority. (Note: Both these examples give a message of indiscipline which is an undesirable situation.)

(4) Unity of Command:

According to the principle of unity of command, an individual employee should receive orders from only one superior at a time and that employee should be answerable only to that superior. If there are many superiors giving orders to the same employee, he will not be able to decide as to which order is to be given priority. He thus finds himself in a confused situation.

Such a situation adversely affects the efficiency of the subordinates. On the other hand, when there are many superiors, every superior would like his orders to be given priority. This ego problem creates a possibility of clash. Consequently, their own efficiency is likely to be affected.

(5) Unity of Direction:

Unity of direction means that there should be one head for one plan for a group of activities having the same objective. In other words, there should be one plan of action for a group of activities having the same objective and there should be one manager to control them.

Basis	Unity of command	Unity of direction
Meaning	It implies that a sub-ordinate should receive orders & instructions from only one boss.	It means one head, one plan for a group of activities having similar objectives.
Nature	It is related to the functioning of personnel’s.	It is related to the functioning of departments, or organization as a whole.
Necessity	It is necessary for fixing responsibility of each subordinates.	It is necessary for sound organization.
Advantage	It avoids conflicts, confusion & chaos.	It avoids duplication of efforts and wastage of resources.
Result	It leads to better superior sub-ordinate relationship.	It leads to smooth running of the enterprise.

For example, suppose an automobile company is manufacturing two products, namely, scooters and cars, hence having two divisions.

As each product has its own markets and problems therefore each division must have its own targets. Now each division must plan its target as per its environmental conditions to get better results. It is necessary to distinguish between the meaning of the unity of command and the unity of direction.

Unity of command means that there should be only one manager at a time to give command to an employee, while the unity of direction means that there should be only one manager exercising control over all the activities having the same objective.

Unity of Command & Unity of Direction

In this connection Fayol feels that for the efficient running of an organisation the unity of direction is important, while the unity of command is important to enhance the efficiency of the employees.

(6) Subordination of Individual Interest to General Interest:

This principle can be named ‘Priority to General Interest over Individual Interest.’ According to this principle, the general interest or the interest of the organisation is above everything. If one is asked to place individual interest and the general interest in order of priority, definitely the general interest will be placed at the first place.

For example, if a manager takes some decision which harms him personally but results in a great profit to the company, he should certainly give priority to the interest of the company and take the decision accordingly. On the contrary, if some decision helps the manager personally but results in a great loss to the company, then such a decision should never be taken.

For example, a purchase manager of a company has to purchase 100 tonnes of raw material. His son happens to be a supplier along with other suppliers in the market. The manager purchases the raw material from the firm of his son at a rate higher than the market rate. This will profit the manager personally, but the company will incur heavy loss. This situation is undesirable.

(7) Remuneration to Employees:

Fayol is of the opinion that the employees should get a fair remuneration so that the employees and the owners find equal amount of satisfaction. It is the duty of the manager to ensure that employees are being paid remuneration according to their work. If, however, they are not paid properly for their work, they will not do their work with perfect dedication, honesty and capacity.

As a result, the organisation shall have to face failure. Proper remuneration depends on some factors like the cost of living, demand of labour and their ability. Fayol feels that in order to motivate the employees, apart from general remuneration, they should be given some monetary and non-monetary incentives.

For example, suppose that the things are getting dearer and dearer and the company is getting good profits. In such a situation, the remuneration of the employees should be increased even without their asking. If this is not done, the employees will leave the company at the first opportunity. Expenses shall have to be incurred on new recruitment which shall bring loss to the company.

(8) Centralisation and Decentralisation:

According to this principle, the superiors should adopt effective centralisation instead of complete centralisation and complete decentralisation. By effective centralisation, Fayol does not mean that authority should be completely centralised.

He feels that the superiors should keep the authority of taking important decisions in their own hands, while the authority to take daily decisions and decisions of less importance should be delegated to the subordinates.

The ratio of centralisation and decentralisation can differ in different situations. For example, it is advantageous to have more centralisation in a small business unit and more decentralisation in a big business unit.

For example, the decisions in respect of determining the objectives and policies, expansion of business, etc. should remain in the hands of the superiors. On the other hand, authority for the purchase of raw material, granting leave to the employees, etc. should be delegated to the subordinates.

Positive Effect

(i) Decrease in the workload of superiors

(ii) Better and quick decisions

(iii) Increase in the encouragement to the subordinates

Violating Effect

(i) Unnecessary increase in the workload of the superiors in case of centralisation and of the subordinates in case of decentralisation

(ii) Impatient and wrong decisions by the superiors in case of complete centralisation and weak decisions by the subordinates in case of complete decentralisation

(iii) Decline in the encouragement to subordinates in case of complete centralisation

(9) Scalar Chain:

(i) Meaning of Scalar Chain:

It refers to a formal line of authority which moves from highest to the lowest ranks in a straight line,

(ii) Fayol’s Opinion:

This chain must be followed in a strict manner. It means each communication must move from top to bottom and vice versa in a straight line. The important condition here is that no step (post) should be overlooked during communication.

(iii) Fayol’s Ladder:

Fayol has explained this principle with the help of a ladder.

For example, in a company the employee ‘F’ wants to have contact with the employee ‘P’. According to the principle of scalar chain ‘F’ shall have to reach ‘A’ through the medium of E,D,C,B and then having contact with L,M,N,0 shall reach ‘P’. Thus ‘F’ shall have to take the help of all the nine steps (posts) to have business contact with ‘P’.

(iv) Utility:

Due to more clear system of authority and communication, problems can be solved faster.

(v) Gang Plank:

It is the exception of the principle of scalar chain. This concept was developed to establish a direct contact with the employee of equal rank in case of emergency to avoid delay in communication.

In the figure given, if D has to communicate with G he will first send the communication upwards with the help of C, B to A and then downwards with the help of E and F to G which will take quite some time and by that time, it may not be worth therefore a gang plank has been developed between the two.

(10) Order:

According to the principle of order, a right person should be placed at the right job and a right thing should be placed at the right place. According to Fayol, every enterprise should have two different orders-Material Order for Physical Resources and Social Order for Human Resources.

Keeping the physical resources in order means that ‘a proper place for everything and everything in its right place’. Similarly, keeping the human resources in order means ‘a place for everyone and everyone in his appointed place’.

Maintaining these two orders properly will ensure that everybody knows his workplace, what he is to do and from where he would get his required material. Consequently, all the available resources in the organisation will be utilised properly.

Gang Plank: A Special Note

Gang Plank can only be established with the employees of the equal or same level. For example, in the present example no gang plank can be established between F and O.

For example, an employee working in a factory should know the place or source from where he can get his tools in case of need. Similarly, he should know the place where his supervisor will be available in case of any need.

It is, however, important to note that it is not sufficient to have an allotted place for a toolbox and for the supervisor but the availability of both at their decided place is absolutely important. If this is not the case, it can lead to a heavy loss as a result of damage to the machines.

(11) Equity:

This principle tells that the managers should treat their subordinates in a just and kind manner so that they develop a feeling of dedication and attachment for their work. All the employees should be treated equally and impartially.

Fayol tells us in connection with this principle that there should not be any equality of treatment between a person whose work is really good and a person who is a shirker by nature.

Rather, the latter should be treated sternly. Doing so would be equitable. It is because of this point of view that Taylor has presented his differential remuneration method.

(12) Stability of Personnel:

From the point of view of management it is absolutely harmful to change the employees frequently as it is a reflection of inefficient management. Therefore, according to this principle there should be stability of tenure of the employees so that the work continues efficiently.

Fayol thinks that instability in the tenure of employees is a cause of poor management and results. High rate of labour turnover will result in increased expenses because of selecting them time and again, and giving them training afresh.

It also lowers the prestige of the organisation and creates a feeling of insecurity among the employees which keeps them busy in finding out new avenues of work. Consequently, the sense of dedication cannot be created among them.

For example, it is true that if the workers in a company are not treated well and the atmosphere in the company is also unhealthy, the employees will not stay for a long time. In other words, they will leave the company at the first opportunity available. This situation is absolutely harmful.

For example, a labourer completes 10 units of goods in a day. Another labourer who happens to be a relative of the supervisor completes 8 units but both get equal remuneration. This violates the principles of equality. The second labourer should get less remuneration than the first one.

(13) Initiative:

Initiative means the capacity to work while expressing one’s thoughts. According to Fayol, it is the duty of the manager to encourage the feeling of initiative among his employees for doing some work or taking some decision but within the limits of authority and discipline.

It will be possible only when the manager will welcome the thoughts of his/her subordinates. By doing so the subordinates will present new and useful ideas time and again and gradually they will become an integral part of the organisation. In order to make this process a success a manager will have to abandon his false sense of prestige.

For example, a salesman suggests to his sales manager to implement a new advertisement technique. The sales manager sends him away by telling him that it is not possible and ignores the suggestion altogether.

In such a situation the salesman, who has been admonished and belittled, will never venture to offer any suggestion in future because his desire of taking initiative has been suppressed.

On the contrary, if his suggestion had been listened to carefully (even though not to be implemented) he could have taken the courage to offer some suggestion in future. Such an action would simply have encouraged his initiative.

Positive Effect

(i) Increase in the thinking power of the employees

(ii) Cooperation of the employees in implementing decisions

(iii) Increase in the sense of attachment to the organisation Violating Effect

(iv) Decline in the thinking power of the employees

(v) An atmosphere of non-cooperation

(vi) Decline in the employees’ attachment to the company

(14) Esprit de corps:

As per this principle, a manager should continuously make efforts to develop a team spirit among the subordinates. To do this, he/she should use the word ‘We’ instead of” during the conversation with subordinates.

G. Functions of Educational Management

Functions of educational management are those functions which are performed by managers. Managers are generally involved in the functions of : Planning, Organising, Directing, Motivating, Evaluating and Decision-making. These are also the functions of the organization as that beyond an individual manager and affect the entire institution.

These functions of educational management are largely based on the 14 principles of management, which have been given by Henry Fayol in 1916. They are;

• Division of work.
• Authority
• Discipline
• Unity of command.
• Unity of direction 
• Subordination of individual interests 
• Renumeration 
• Centralisation
• Scalar chain 
• Material and social order. 
• Equity 
• Stability 
• Initiative 
• Espirit de corps. 

In general the various functions of educational management can be said to be as follows;

• The first function is the assurance that sound policies, goals and objectives are formulated in a given school and that methods are determined for the achievement of these objectives.
• To procure the resources necessary for the achievement of the objectives. 
• To organise and co-ordinate the activities of the school with the prime function of achieving the objectives of the school with maximum efficiency and effectiveness.
• To influence and stimulate the human resources available. 
• To integrate the school and its activities into the set-up of society. 
• To evaluate the schools activities in accordance with the plans made. 

To be specific the above functions can be classified as the functions of : PLANNING, ORGANISING, STAFFING, DIRECTING & CONTROLLING which every educational manager has to perform.

Management has been described as a social process involving responsibility for economical and effective planning & regulation of operation of an enterprise in the fulfillment of given purposes. It is a dynamic process consisting of various elements and activities. These activities are different from operative functions like marketing, finance, purchase etc. Rather these activities are common to each and every manger irrespective of his level or status.

Different experts have classified functions of management. According to George & Jerry, “There are four fundamental functions of management i.e. planning, organizing, actuating and controlling”.

According to Henry Fayol, “To manage is to forecast and plan, to organize, to command, & to control”. Whereas Luther Gullick has given a keyword ’POSDCORB’ where P stands for Planning, O for Organizing, S for Staffing, D for Directing, Co for Co-ordination, R for reporting & B for Budgeting. But the most widely accepted are functions of management given by KOONTZ and O’DONNEL i.e. Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing and Controlling.

For theoretical purposes, it may be convenient to separate the function of management but practically these functions are overlapping in nature i.e. they are highly inseparable. Each function blends into the other & each affects the performance of others.

Functions of Management

1. Planning

It is the basic function of management. It deals with chalking out a future course of action & deciding in advance the most appropriate course of actions for achievement of pre-determined goals. According to KOONTZ, “Planning is deciding in advance - what to do, when to do & how to do. It bridges the gap from where we are & where we want to be”. A plan is a future course of actions. It is an exercise in problem solving & decision making. Planning is determination of courses of action to achieve desired goals. Thus, planning is a systematic thinking about ways & means for accomplishment of pre-determined goals. Planning is necessary to ensure proper utilization of human & non-human resources. It is all pervasive, it is an intellectual activity and it also helps in avoiding confusion, uncertainties, risks, wastages etc.

Planning means looking ahead and chalking out future courses of action to be followed. It is a preparatory step. It is a systematic activity which determines when, how and who is going to perform a specific job. Planning is a detailed programme regarding future courses of action.

It is rightly said “Well plan is half done”. Therefore planning takes into consideration available & prospective human and physical resources of the organization so as to get effective co-ordination, contribution & perfect adjustment. It is the basic management function which includes formulation of one or more detailed plans to achieve optimum balance of needs or demands with the available resources.

According to Urwick, “Planning is a mental predisposition to do things in orderly way, to think before acting and to act in the light of facts rather than guesses”. Planning is deciding best alternative among others to perform different managerial functions in order to achieve predetermined goals.

According to Koontz & O’Donell, “Planning is deciding in advance what to do, how to do and who is to do it. Planning bridges the gap between where we are to, where we want to go. It makes possible things to occur which would not otherwise occur”.

Steps in Planning Function

Planning function of management involves following steps:-

1. Establishment of objectives

   1. Planning requires a systematic approach.
   2. Planning starts with the setting of goals and objectives to be achieved.
   3. Objectives provide a rationale for undertaking various activities as well as indicate direction of efforts.
   4. Moreover objectives focus the attention of managers on the end results to be achieved.
   5. As a matter of fact, objectives provide nucleus to the planning process. Therefore, objectives should be stated in a clear, precise and unambiguous language. Otherwise the activities undertaken are bound to be ineffective.
   6. As far as possible, objectives should be stated in quantitative terms. For example, Number of men working, wages given, units produced, etc. But such an objective cannot be stated in quantitative terms like performance of quality control manager, effectiveness of personnel manager.
   7. Such goals should be specified in qualitative terms.
   8. Hence objectives should be practical, acceptable, workable and achievable.

2. Establishment of Planning Premises

   1. Planning premises are the assumptions about the lively shape of events in future.
   2. They serve as a basis of planning.
   3. Establishment of planning premises is concerned with determining where one tends to deviate from the actual plans and causes of such deviations.
   4. It is to find out what obstacles are there in the way of business during the course of operations.
   5. Establishment of planning premises is concerned to take such steps that avoids these obstacles to a great extent.
   6. Planning premises may be internal or external. Internal includes capital investment policy, management labour relations, philosophy of management, etc. Whereas external includes socio- economic, political and economical changes.
   7. Internal premises are controllable whereas external are non- controllable.

3. Choice of alternative course of action

   1. When forecast are available and premises are established, a number of alternative course of actions have to be considered.
   2. For this purpose, each and every alternative will be evaluated by weighing its pros and cons in the light of resources available and requirements of the organization.
   3. The merits, demerits as well as the consequences of each alternative must be examined before the choice is being made.
   4. After objective and scientific evaluation, the best alternative is chosen.
   5. The planners should take help of various quantitative techniques to judge the stability of an alternative.

4. Formulation of derivative plans

   1. Derivative plans are the sub plans or secondary plans which help in the achievement of main plan.
   2. Secondary plans will flow from the basic plan. These are meant to support and expediate the achievement of basic plans.
   3. These detail plans include policies, procedures, rules, programmes, budgets, schedules, etc. For example, if profit maximization is the main aim of the enterprise, derivative plans will include sales maximization, production maximization, and cost minimization.
   4. Derivative plans indicate time schedule and sequence of accomplishing various tasks.

5. Securing Co-operation

   1. After the plans have been determined, it is necessary rather advisable to take subordinates or those who have to implement these plans into confidence.
   2. The purposes behind taking them into confidence are :-
      1. Subordinates may feel motivated since they are involved in decision making process.
      2. The organization may be able to get valuable suggestions and improvement in formulation as well as implementation of plans.
      3. Also the employees will be more interested in the execution of these plans.

6. Follow up/Appraisal of plans

1. After choosing a particular course of action, it is put into action.
2. After the selected plan is implemented, it is important to appraise its effectiveness.
3. This is done on the basis of feedback or information received from departments or persons concerned.
4. This enables the management to correct deviations or modify the plan.
5. This step establishes a link between planning and controlling function.
6. The follow up must go side by side the implementation of plans so that in the light of observations made, future plans can be made more realistic.

2. Organizing

It is the process of bringing together physical, financial and human resources and developing productive relationship amongst them for achievement of organizational goals. According to Henry Fayol, “To organize a business is to provide it with everything useful or its functioning i.e. raw material, tools, capital and personnel’s”. To organize a business involves determining & providing human and non-human resources to the organizational structure. Organizing as a process involves:

• Identification of activities.
• Classification of grouping of activities.
• Assignment of duties.
• Delegation of authority and creation of responsibility.
• Coordinating authority and responsibility relationships.

Organizing is the function of management which follows planning. It is a function in which the synchronization and combination of human, physical and financial resources takes place. All the three resources are important to get results. Therefore, organizational function helps in achievement of results which in fact is important for the functioning of a concern. According to Chester Barnard, “Organizing is a function by which the concern is able to define the role positions, the jobs related and the co-ordination between authority and responsibility. Hence, a manager always has to organize in order to get results.

A manager performs organizing function with the help of following steps:-

1. Identification of activities - All the activities which have to be performed in a concern have to be identified first. For example, preparation of accounts, making sales, record keeping, quality control, inventory control, etc. All these activities have to be grouped and classified into units.
2. Departmentally organizing the activities - In this step, the manager tries to combine and group similar and related activities into units or departments. This organization of dividing the whole concern into independent units and departments is called departmentation.
3. Classifying the authority - Once the departments are made, the manager likes to classify the powers and its extent to the managers. This activity of giving a rank in order to the managerial positions is called hierarchy. The top management is into formulation of policies, the middle level management into departmental supervision and lower level management into supervision of foremen. The clarification of authority help in bringing efficiency in the running of a concern. This helps in achieving efficiency in the running of a concern. This helps in avoiding wastage of time, money, effort, in avoidance of duplication or overlapping of efforts and this helps in bringing smoothness in a concern’s working.
4. Co-ordination between authority and responsibility - Relationships are established among various groups to enable smooth interaction toward the achievement of the organizational goal. Each individual is made aware of his authority and he/she knows whom they have to take orders from and to whom they are accountable and to whom they have to report. A clear organizational structure is drawn and all the employees are made aware of it.

3. Staffing

It is the function of manning the organization structure and keeping it manned. Staffing has assumed greater importance in the recent years due to advancement of technology, increase in size of business, complexity of human behavior etc. The main purpose o staffing is to put right man on right job i.e. square pegs in square holes and round pegs in round holes. According to Kootz & O’Donell, “Managerial function of staffing involves manning the organization structure through proper and effective selection, appraisal & development of personnel to fill the roles designed un the structure”. Staffing involves:

• Manpower Planning (estimating man power in terms of searching, choose the person and giving the right place).
• Recruitment, Selection & Placement.
• Training & Development.
• Remuneration.
• Performance Appraisal.
• Promotions & Transfer.

The managerial function of staffing involves manning the organization structure through proper and effective selection, appraisal and development of the personnels to fill the roles assigned to the employers/workforce.

According to Theo Haimann, “Staffing pertains to recruitment, selection, development and compensation of subordinates.”

Nature of Staffing Function

1. Staffing is an important managerial function- Staffing function is the most important mangerial act along with planning, organizing, directing and controlling. The operations of these four functions depend upon the manpower which is available through staffing function.
2. Staffing is a pervasive activity- As staffing function is carried out by all mangers and in all types of concerns where business activities are carried out.
3. Staffing is a continuous activity- This is because staffing function continues throughout the life of an organization due to the transfers and promotions that take place.
4. The basis of staffing function is efficient management of personnels- Human resources can be efficiently managed by a system or proper procedure, that is, recruitment, selection, placement, training and development, providing remuneration, etc.
5. Staffing helps in placing right men at the right job. It can be done effectively through proper recruitment procedures and then finally selecting the most suitable candidate as per the job requirements.
6. Staffing is performed by all managers depending upon the nature of business, size of the company, qualifications and skills of managers,etc. In small companies, the top management generally performs this function. In medium and small scale enterprise, it is performed especially by the personnel department of that concern.

4. Directing

It is that part of managerial function which actuates the organizational methods to work efficiently for achievement of organizational purposes. It is considered life-spark of the enterprise which sets it in motion the action of people because planning, organizing and staffing are the mere preparations for doing the work. Direction is that inert-personnel aspect of management which deals directly with influencing, guiding, supervising, motivating sub-ordinate for the achievement of organizational goals. Direction has following elements:

• Supervision
• Motivation
• Leadership
• Communication

Supervision- implies overseeing the work of subordinates by their superiors. It is the act of watching & directing work & workers.

Motivation- means inspiring, stimulating or encouraging the sub-ordinates with zeal to work. Positive, negative, monetary, non-monetary incentives may be used for this purpose.

Leadership- may be defined as a process by which manager guides and influences the work of subordinates in desired direction.

Communications- is the process of passing information, experience, opinion etc from one person to another. It is a bridge of understanding.

DIRECTING is said to be a process in which the managers instruct, guide and oversee the performance of the workers to achieve predetermined goals. Directing is said to be the heart of management process. Planning, organizing, staffing have got no importance if direction function does not take place.

Directing initiates action and it is from here actual work starts. Direction is said to be consisting of human factors. In simple words, it can be described as providing guidance to workers is doing work. In field of management, direction is said to be all those activities which are designed to encourage the subordinates to work effectively and efficiently. According to Human, “Directing consists of process or technique by which instruction can be issued and operations can be carried out as originally planned” Therefore, Directing is the function of guiding, inspiring, overseeing and instructing people towards accomplishment of organizational goals.

Direction has got following characteristics:

1. Pervasive Function - Directing is required at all levels of organization. Every manager provides guidance and inspiration to his subordinates.
2. Continuous Activity - Direction is a continuous activity as it continuous throughout the life of organization.
3. Human Factor - Directing function is related to subordinates and therefore it is related to human factor. Since human factor is complex and behaviour is unpredictable, direction function becomes important.
4. Creative Activity - Direction function helps in converting plans into performance. Without this function, people become inactive and physical resources are meaningless.
5. Executive Function - Direction function is carried out by all managers and executives at all levels throughout the working of an enterprise, a subordinate receives instructions from his superior only.
6. Delegate Function - Direction is supposed to be a function dealing with human beings. Human behaviour is unpredictable by nature and conditioning the people’s behaviour towards the goals of the enterprise is what the executive does in this function. Therefore, it is termed as having delicacy in it to tackle human behaviour.

5. Controlling

It implies measurement of accomplishment against the standards and correction of deviation if any to ensure achievement of organizational goals. The purpose of controlling is to ensure that everything occurs in conformities with the standards. An efficient system of control helps to predict deviations before they actually occur. According to Theo Haimann, “Controlling is the process of checking whether or not proper progress is being made towards the objectives and goals and acting if necessary, to correct any deviation”. According to Koontz & O’Donell “Controlling is the measurement & correction of performance activities of subordinates in order to make sure that the enterprise objectives and plans desired to obtain them as being accomplished”. Therefore controlling has following steps:

1. Establishment of standard performance.
2. Measurement of actual performance.
3. Comparison of actual performance with the standards and finding out deviation if any.
4. Corrective action.

Controlling consists of verifying whether everything occurs in confirmities with the plans adopted, instructions issued and principles established. Controlling ensures that there is effective and efficient utilization of organizational resources so as to achieve the planned goals. Controlling measures the deviation of actual performance from the standard performance, discovers the causes of such deviations and helps in taking corrective actions

According to Brech, “Controlling is a systematic exercise which is called as a process of checking actual performance against the standards or plans with a view to ensure adequate progress and also recording such experience as is gained as a contribution to possible future needs.”

According to Donnell, “Just as a navigator continually takes reading to ensure whether he is relative to a planned action, so should a business manager continually take reading to assure himself that his enterprise is on right course.”

Controlling has got two basic purposes

1. It facilitates co-ordination
2. It helps in planning

Features of Controlling Function

Following are the characteristics of controlling function of management-

1. Controlling is an end function- A function which comes once the performances are made in confirmities with plans.
2. Controlling is a pervasive function- which means it is performed by managers at all levels and in all type of concerns.
3. Controlling is forward looking- because effective control is not possible without past being controlled. Controlling always look to future so that follow-up can be made whenever required.
4. Controlling is a dynamic process- since controlling requires taking reviewal methods, changes have to be made wherever possible.
5. Controlling is related with planning- Planning and Controlling are two inseparable functions of management. Without planning, controlling is a meaningless exercise and without controlling, planning is useless. Planning presupposes controlling and controlling succeeds planning.